The Role of Anthropology in the Digital Era
Tauhid Nur Azhar
There is a book that tells the story of the tribes living in the Baliem Valley, Papua, titled “People of The Valley”. The author is an American anthropologist named Wyn Sargent.
On October 1, 1973, Wyn Sargent arrived in Wamena, intending to conduct in-depth anthropological research on the tribes in the Baliem Valley. She began by living with the Analaga tribe.
In addition to observing and recording the daily activities and culture of the Analaga tribe, Wyn also traveled among the tribes of the Baliem Valley. She not only conducted research and observations but also implemented a basic health care program with a social focus.
However, not all tribes in the Baliem Valley agreed with Wyn’s activities. As a result, during one of her social mission trips to the Baliem Valley, her group was confronted by 30 special soldiers from the Dani tribe, who had received direct orders from their legendary leader, Obahorok.
This led to tension between the tribes at that time. Why? Because some tribes in the Baliem Valley were happy with Wyn’s presence and activities, while others were not, fearing that her presence would lead to exploitation of the independence of the Papuan tribes in the Baliem Valley.
Due to the growing differences in opinion, a war between the tribes in the Baliem Valley almost broke out. Fortunately, Wyn, realizing that her presence was the root of the problem, offered to be part of the solution.
Wyn agreed to marry Obahorok as part of a cultural diplomacy process. Regardless of whether there was love between them, which has not been confirmed to this day, the impact was real, and the tension in the Baliem Valley subsided.
However, the peace did not last long, as the issue of Wyn’s presence and marriage sparked controversy in various layers of society, including the authorities at the time, who eventually decided to deport Wyn Sargent to the United States.
Regardless of the story behind the controversy surrounding Wyn Sargent’s marriage to Obahorok, with many unanswered questions about her motives and background, I still believe that Wyn’s capabilities as an anthropologist who dared to conduct in-depth research were remarkable.
Why? Because anthropology is a unique discipline that is closely tied to the evolution of human civilization. Its primary process is to study the culture that emerges from the womb of civilization from various groups of people, tribes, and even countries around the world.
From various literature, anthropology is often defined as the science that studies humans holistically, covering physical, social, cultural, and environmental aspects.
As time progressed, anthropology has undergone significant transformations from merely studying traditional societies and cultures to encompassing all aspects of human life, including interactions with modern technology.
In the early days, known as the classical period from the 18th to the early 20th centuries, anthropology was influenced by European colonial thinking. Explorers and missionaries often observed non-Western societies, with the goal of mapping the differences between primitive and civilized societies.
One of the key figures in anthropology during this period was Edward Burnett Tylor (1832–1917), who viewed culture as an evolving entity. His theory of social evolution considered culture to develop from simple to complex forms.
In the mid-20th century, anthropology began to move towards a more scientific and systematic approach with the emergence of functionalism. This approach, led by Bronislaw Malinowski, emphasized the importance of seeing culture as a system where each element has a function in supporting the overall structure of society.
The concept of functional interdependence was also promoted by Alfred Radcliffe-Brown, who often emphasized the structural-functional approach, where society is seen as a system with a social structure that maintains balance.
Later, in the mid-20th century, the structuralist approach emerged, which was influenced by the thoughts of Claude Lévi-Strauss.
Structuralism, as proposed by Strauss, focuses on the relationships between cultural elements, emphasizing the importance of the underlying structure that shapes human thought.
Lévi-Strauss considered myths and language as reflections of the universal cognitive structure of humans. In theory, this means that there is a fundamental structure in culture and language that is not influenced by historical or geographical variations.
In the late 20th century, there was a reaction against the previous grand approaches. Postmodern anthropologists criticized the view that anthropological researchers were neutral observers and culture was a fixed object.
It was during this era that Clifford Geertz introduced the concept of cultural interpretation, where culture is understood as a complex system of symbols and meanings. Meanwhile, Sherry Ortner focused on the analysis of power, gender, and symbolism in social structures.
Today, anthropology is exploring the digital realm, examining how technology and digital media shape identity, community, and culture. Contemporary anthropological research highlights the interaction between humans and technology, as well as the implications of globalization on daily life.
In this era, the post-humanist approach has emerged, questioning the boundaries between humans and technology in the digital world.
One of the legends in the field of anthropology is Margaret Mead, known for her expertise in the region of Oceania, specifically in the Pacific Islands.
Margaret Mead was raised by her father, Edward Mead, an economist, and her mother, Emily Mead, a social reformer. She worked at the American Museum of Natural History in New York City from 1926 to 1969 as a curator of cultural anthropology. She also taught at Columbia University. Mead became a popular and controversial speaker on issues such as women’s rights, childrearing, drug abuse, and world hunger.
From her research in Oceania, Mead gathered various facts from her fieldwork, which she used to develop new hypotheses and theories, particularly regarding gender characteristics and roles.
In her theory, Mead argued that gender roles are not solely determined by biological factors but by societal influences. She also found that men and women in each society have different patterns of behavior.
In the digital era, with the rapid development of information and communication technology, as well as the emergence of artificial intelligence, the concept of cultural interpretation, as proposed by Geertz, and the role of gender in society, as studied by Mead, will undoubtedly become fascinating topics of observation.
The growth of a more pluralistic yet homogeneous society is perhaps one of the unique anthropological phenomena of our time. The collapse of national and tribal boundaries due to the spread of universal values facilitated by technology is a significant evolutionary leap that can be observed.
The concept of a borderless world, initially proposed by Kenichi Ohmae, has become a reality in the context of personal and communal interactions across nations and tribes, facilitated by the internet.
On the other hand, new sub-tribes have emerged as a result of the creation of digital twins or parallel worlds, brought about by the intrusion of digital technology into almost every aspect of life.
Today, we seem to be living in two different worlds, and perhaps with two different personalities. New cultural and communication patterns have emerged, as well as social pathologies such as hikikimori, cyberbullying, and FOMO (fear of missing out).
In essence, a new culture has been born, with its own symbols and transformations. The patterns of interaction have changed significantly from what we previously knew and experienced. Even generational segregation has emerged due to differences in growth and development, influenced by technological changes over time.
There is Generation X, which transitioned from analog to digital technology. There is the millennial generation, which, although already familiar with digital technology, still acquired social relationship patterns from their parents’ generation (perhaps Baby Boomers), and so on.
As categorized by the Central Statistics Agency (BPS), the Indonesian population is currently divided into six generations: Post-Generation Z, Generation Z, Millennials, Generation X, Baby Boomers, and Pre-Boomers.
Post-Generation Z refers to those born in 2013 and later. Generation Z, on the other hand, refers to those born between 1997 and 2012, who are currently aged 8–23. Millennials are those born between 1981 and 1996, currently aged 24–39. Generation X refers to those born between 1965 and 1980, currently aged 40–55.
Baby Boomers are those currently aged 56–74, born between 1946 and 1964. Finally, Pre-Boomers are those born before 1945, currently aged 75 and above.
What is the role of technology studies in the digital era? In my opinion, anthropology plays a crucial role in helping us understand the changes in society in the digital era through a holistic and interpretative approach. By combining traditional ethnographic methods with new approaches to the digital world, anthropology can offer in-depth insights into the impact of technology on human social, cultural, economic, and political life.
The digital era has changed the way people interact and perceive their identities. Social media, virtual communities, and online interactions enable individuals to form and express their identities more flexibly, transcending geographical and cultural boundaries.
Anthropology, through digital ethnography, can explore how individuals and groups form new identities in virtual spaces. For example, anthropological research can highlight how social norms change when individuals engage in digital interactions and how online communities influence their offline lives.
Digital culture encompasses the values, norms, and practices that develop around technology, such as the use of social media, games, apps, and the internet. Anthropology can map how different social groups adopt technology in various ways based on their social, economic, and cultural contexts.
For instance, the concept of the digital divide or digital inequality is often a focus of research, where anthropologists study the unequal access to technology in various societies and its impact on social and economic inclusion.
Virtual world ethnography is an approach that anthropologists can use to study human interaction in the digital world. Through direct observation and participation in online communities, anthropologists can analyze how social structures, hierarchies, and cultural norms develop in virtual spaces such as social media, online games, or community forums.
This study can provide insights into how humans build and maintain social relationships in the virtual world and how they overcome challenges such as anonymity and privacy.
Digital globalization has accelerated the exchange of information, culture, and economy worldwide. Anthropology can play a role in exploring how this globalization affects local cultural identities and social practices. By examining the dynamics of power and inequality, anthropology can analyze how certain social groups experience marginalization or resistance to dominant global technologies.
Digitalization has also changed the way people work, particularly with the emergence of platform economies such as online transportation, e-commerce, and freelance work based on technology.
Digital anthropology can study the impact of digital work on social relationships and community values. By understanding how individuals engage in digital economies and how this affects their daily lives, anthropologists can provide insights into changes in economic structures, job instability, and unequal access to new economic resources.
It is undeniable that the presence of social media has revolutionized the way people communicate and consume information. Anthropology can be used to analyze how social media influences how people form opinions, engage in social actions, and build solidarity networks.
Moreover, social media also influences political behavior, activism, and the dissemination of information, which often has far-reaching social impacts.
With the development of the digital era, new ethical challenges have emerged, such as data privacy, surveillance algorithms, and information manipulation.
Anthropology can play a role in providing insights into how traditional norms and values adapt to these new challenges. They can also help develop an ethical framework that is sensitive to local and cultural contexts to address new issues in the digital world.
It is no wonder that anthropology in the digital era not only studies humans as the center but also begins to examine the relationship between humans and technology in the context of posthumanism.
Technologies such as artificial intelligence (AI), body augmentation, and virtual reality are changing the traditional boundaries between humans and machines, requiring a special approach.
This is where posthumanist anthropology seeks to understand how these technologies affect the concept of humanity itself.
Not only that, but various anthropological theories are highly relevant in analyzing and understanding the conditions faced by societies in the digital era. These theories help explain social transformations, identities, cultures, and human relationships with technology in the midst of digitalization.
For example, we can implement functionalist theory, which was pioneered by Bronislaw Malinowski and Alfred Radcliffe-Brown, which states that every aspect of society functions to maintain social stability.
In the digital era, this theory is relevant for understanding how digital technologies (such as social media and online platforms) function as tools to maintain social cohesion, form individual interactions, and support social structures.
Social media can be seen as a mechanism that maintains relationships between community members, even when they are physically separated, by connecting individuals through virtual platforms.
Digital ecosystems, such as health and education apps, can also be understood as elements that play a functional role in supporting community well-being.
We can also use the approach of Claude Lévi-Strauss, the founder of structuralism, who hypothesized that there is a fundamental structure in human thought that is reflected in culture and language.
In the digital era, this theory can help us understand how social structures and human thought patterns are influenced by digital technology.
Algorithms used in social media or e-commerce can be seen as digital structures that regulate how information is presented, decisions are made, and identities are formed, creating repetitive patterns in human digital interactions.
Language in digital spaces (such as emojis, memes, or other digital symbols) can be seen as a manifestation of the same human cognitive structure, but in the context of digital communication.
We can also base many digital anthropology studies on the theory of Clifford Geertz, interpretive theory, which emphasizes that culture must be understood as a network of meanings woven by humans themselves.
According to Geertz, culture is not just a functional system, but also a system full of symbols and meanings. In the digital era, this theory is highly relevant for understanding how individuals and groups create meaning through digital symbols, such as hashtags, emojis, or memes.
The use of hashtags in social media campaigns can be interpreted as a form of creating collective meaning and narrative. For example, movements like #DagoElosBergerak and #akubersamadugong involve the use of digital symbols to convey social meaning and purpose.
Online communities also create new cultures where digital symbols (such as memes) create shared identities and community values.
If we refer to the criticisms of postmodern anthropology, led by James Clifford and George Marcus, which emphasize pluralism, relativism, and subjectivity, these become relevant in the digital era.
To understand the reality of a society that is increasingly fragmented and not bound by grand narratives, a unique and personal approach is needed, as digital technology enables the creation of micro-spaces that facilitate diverse identities and worldviews.
In social media, society can create its own subjective reality through the phenomenon of filter bubbles and algorithms that only present information that supports the individual’s views, reflecting a fragmented reality.
Meanwhile, virtual reality (VR) and augmented reality (AR) enable individuals to create alternative realities that transcend physical boundaries, reflecting the postmodern concept of plural realities.
On the other hand, the theory of globalization, led by Arjun Appadurai, views the world as a single entity connected through technology, economy, and culture. Appadurai’s concept of Space, which is embodied in the concepts of mediascape, ethnoscape, and technoscape, becomes relevant for understanding how digital technology shapes daily life through information flows, migration, and technology.
Global platforms like YouTube or TikTok enable the rapid spread of culture across borders, creating a global cultural phenomenon that breaks down national boundaries.
Meanwhile, e-commerce platforms like marketplaces can accelerate economic globalization and change consumption patterns and labor structures in societies around the world.
There is also the theory of agency and structure developed by Pierre Bourdieu, which can be used to develop concepts about habitus, capital, and fields, which explain the relationship between individual agency and social structure.
In the digital era, this theory can help us understand how individuals use technology to influence and shape social structures, while still being bound by the limits set by technology and digital capital.
For example, social media users can use platforms like Twitter or Instagram to build social and cultural capital, increasing their influence and social status in the digital world.
However, on the other hand, the agency of users is still limited by the structures built by technology companies through algorithms that control content visibility and access to audiences.
The Actor-Network Theory (ANT) developed by Bruno Latour is also rapidly evolving. This theory views the relationship between humans and non-humans (including technology) as a network of actors that influence each other. In the digital context, technology is seen as an agent that has the power to shape social behavior, not just a passive tool.
Smart devices, artificial intelligence, and the Internet of Things (IoT) become actors in the network of human life, influencing how people work, interact, and make decisions.
This is still related to the context of digital economics, where algorithms in e-commerce or digital platforms act as agents that can influence consumer behavior and purchasing patterns.
In the context of economic anthropology, this theory can also explain how societies adapt to economic changes driven by digitalization.
Technology has created a new economy that changes the way societies produce, distribute, and consume goods and services.
Of course, the approach of digital anthropology can be used to study how the gig economy (freelance, online transportation, online services) affects work relationships, family structures, and community welfare in the digital era.
Other e-commerce phenomena, such as the presence of digital currencies (cryptocurrencies), can also be studied in an effort to understand how economic values and transactions change in the digital world.
These changes will certainly spark changes in cultural and societal values related to anthropological concepts, right?
Therefore, one of the pillars of digital transformation that should be prioritized in the process of developing a technology-based society is the approach of anthropology.
I hope that with this brief article on the role of anthropology in managing the dynamics of digital society, policymakers and stakeholders can study and understand the importance and significance of implementing digital anthropology concepts in the process of national development.
