Spicy Heat, Chili Peppers, Inflation, and the Nation’s Psychosocial Condition
Tauhid Nur Azhar
There is a notable journalistic report from a prominent national daily titled “Jelajah Sambal Nusantara” (Journey through the Sambals of the Archipelago). It’s intriguing. Why sambal? And why is sambal, known for its spicy flavor, found in almost every culinary tradition across the archipelago? Why do the people of the archipelago need this spicy taste? What is it about sambal and its chili content that has quickly become an inseparable part of culture and customs?
Isn’t the spicy taste actually a part of the painful sensation that irritates the sensory nerve network and the sensory association areas in our brains? Didn’t chili peppers only become known in the culinary traditions of the archipelago starting from the 16th century? This is if we are talking about chili peppers domesticated from the wild plant Capsicum annuum L, which belongs to the family Solanaceae, genus Capsicum, and order Solanace.
But don’t be mistaken; long before that, the culinary treasures of the archipelago were already familiar with various ingredients that have high levels of spiciness. The spiciness scale itself can be measured scientifically using the Scoville method, which uses Scoville Heat Units (SHU). SHU is measured by how much sugar water is needed to dilute the capsaicin compound, the active ingredient that causes the spicy taste in chili peppers, until the spicy sensation disappears.
For example, the Carolina Reaper, currently considered the world’s spiciest chili, has an average spiciness level of 1,569,300 to 2,200,000 SHU. In Indonesia, local chili varieties with high spiciness levels include the Katokkon from Toraja.
Endemic spicy agents native to Indonesia include, among others, the Jamu chili, Javanese chili, or puyang pepper (Piper retrofractum). Unlike red or bird’s eye chili peppers, the Jamu chili comes from the genus Piper, which also includes pepper. Its fruit is small, elongated, and contains many seeds. The color of the fruit changes from green to red or black when ripe.
Javanese chili is often used as an ingredient in traditional jamu because it is believed to have health benefits, especially for relieving coughs and increasing stamina. Additionally, its taste is spicy and slightly bitter, making it a suitable addition to various dishes.
Then there is the Pepper (Piper nigrum), also known as Sahang (in Kalimantan), or commonly referred to as merica in Indonesia. Pepper is a climbing plant that produces small, dried, round fruits. Black pepper and white pepper are obtained from this plant, with differences in the processing of the fruits.
Pepper is a primary spice in Indonesian cuisine, providing a characteristic spicy flavor. Black pepper is often used in meat dishes, while white pepper is commonly used in soups or broth-based dishes.
In North Sumatra, there is Andaliman (Zanthoxylum acanthopodium) or Batak Pepper. Andaliman is a type of spice known in Batak cuisine, especially in the dish arsik and andaliman sambal. Its fruit is small, green, and turns red when ripe. Its spicy taste is unique, with a numbing sensation on the tongue. Andaliman provides a spicy taste with a tongue-numbing effect, often used in North Sumatran cuisine. Besides being a cooking spice, andaliman is also believed to have natural antiseptic properties.
Now, the local species Cabe Cakra (Capsicum baccatum) is becoming known and cultivated. The fruit of this chili comes in various shapes and has a sufficiently strong spicy taste.
Several varieties of this chili are becoming popular in cuisines that require unique aromas and spicy flavors. Besides being eaten fresh, this chili can also be dried or made into powder.
With a SHU value reaching 600,000, there is the Cabe Katokkon (Capsicum chinense), among others, the habanero or Cabe Banggai. Cabe Katokkon is one of the chili varieties found in the Sulawesi region, particularly in Tana Toraja. Its shape is slightly different from bird’s eye chili, being more round and larger. Its taste is very spicy, approaching that of the habanero. It is usually used in traditional Toraja cuisine, especially for making sambal or spicy dishes. Its high spiciness level makes it one of the most beloved chili peppers among spicy food enthusiasts, particularly the people of Tana Toraja and surrounding areas.
In the culinary treasures of Indonesia, we can find many uses of chili peppers and spicy agents with high capsaicin content. It is common to find a sambal dish accompanying a culinary offering when visiting a region. For example, there is the sambal Tuk Tuk in Batak culinary tradition with its andaliman content, or the sambal Bongkot in Balinese culinary tradition, enriched with the flavor and aroma of Bongkot or Kecombrang. Sambal with kecombrang can also be found in the culinary tradition of North Tapanuli, known as sambal Rias.
Sambal with various fermented crustacean or fish products can be found in Sumatra and Kalimantan, such as sambal Belacan, sambal Terasi, sambal Bekasang, sambal Roa, and sambal Kaluku, all of which use fishery and marine products. Indeed, our marine potential is abundant and extraordinary.
There are also unique ingredients in the sambal traditions of the archipelago that are hard to find in other countries, such as the use of fermented durian products known as Tempoyak, which is a common sambal ingredient in South Sumatra.
The next intriguing question is, why does the spicy taste become something exotic? We seek and enjoy it even though we are fully aware that it causes pain. Are we truly masochists who crave the sensation of pain to feel the comfort afterward? Isn’t a lump of sweet sugar a contrast when paired with a bitter cup of coffee? Is it really so?
The spicy or hot or painful sensation with a limited scale is often attributed to the active compound capsaicin. Capsaicin is a chemical compound found in chili peppers and some other species that produce a spicy taste, including the group of capsaicinoids, known as one of the vanillyl compounds, resembling the structure of phenol with a long chain linked to an amide group.
As an active compound, capsaicin has a unique chemical attraction because it can directly bind to certain nerve receptors. In the human body, this interaction occurs at receptors called transient receptor potential vanilloid-1 (TRPV1), which usually mediate the response to heat and burns. Activating these receptors creates a sensation similar to a burning heat, triggering the nervous system to provide a reflexive response, ranging from sweating to an increased heart rate.
Capsaicin begins its journey at the TRPV receptors located in the membranes of sensory nerve cells. Once capsaicin binds to TRPV1, the ion channels on the receptor open, allowing Na+ and Ca2+ ions to enter the neuron. This activation causes a change in electrical potential, which is transmitted as a pain signal to the spinal cord and brain. This is where the sensation of pain is felt, but behind it, our body also releases “antidotes” in the form of endorphins.
The impact felt in the brain is not just pain. This is where capsaicin plays a complex role in neuropsychology. When pain receptors are activated, the brain responds by releasing endorphins — a chemical often referred to as the happiness hormone.
Endorphins function to reduce the sensation of pain and induce euphoria, a feeling that might explain why many people are addicted to the sensation of chili peppers.
Besides endorphins, dopamine is also released, adding a dimension of happiness due to its influence on the brain’s reward system. The pleasurable sensation that follows chili pepper consumption is akin to the response to other enjoyable experiences, such as exercising or achieving a specific goal.
Several studies show that regular exposure to capsaicin can influence neuroplasticity, the brain’s ability to change and adapt.
Continuous activation of TRPV1 receptors over a long period can reduce sensitivity to pain. This is thought to be related to the mechanism of neural desensitization, which gradually adapts to repeated stimulation. In fact, topical use of capsaicin has been applied in the treatment of certain chronic pain disorders, such as postherpetic neuralgia and diabetic neuropathy.
According to experts like Caterina and Julius (2001), TRPV1 receptors activated by capsaicin serve as an entry point to many important molecular pathways in the brain. Their research provides a crucial foundation for understanding the potential of capsaicin in pain therapy and even in certain mood disorders.
Other pharmacology experts, such as Szallasi and Blumberg (1999), emphasize that capsaicin offers a unique new pharmacological approach because it can work on different pathways from most common analgesics.
The phenomenon of the spicy sensation from a biopsychological perspective brings us to the view that eating chili peppers might be more than just a cultural habit but a form of everyday therapy. From a scientific standpoint, consuming chili peppers, which triggers the release of happiness hormones, can serve as a natural stress reliever that is easily accessible, especially for societies living under high psychosocial tension and stress.
The question is, can the level of psychosocial stress be described from the fluctuations and dynamics of chili pepper consumption? Isn’t it intriguing?
It cannot be denied that the national level of chili pepper consumption has a significant contribution in the context of fiscal economics. The culinary tradition of spicy food, indicated by the presence of various sambals, from Sambal Lado Mudo in the western part of Indonesia to Sambal Colo-Colo in the eastern part, shows us the important meaning of chili peppers in the dynamics of our nation’s social life.
Even at certain times, chili peppers can contribute to the rate of inflation through the demand-pull mechanism. The scientific question that arises is, is there a relationship between the increase in chili pepper demand and various emotional conditions of the nation? Beyond supply chain and production process issues, there are times when the demand for chili peppers increases. Does this condition have a triggering factor? Certainly, right?
Data from the National Food Agency (Bapanas) shows that in 2023, the average per capita chili pepper consumption reached 2.42 kilograms per year, an increase of 4.3% compared to 2022. The consumption of bird’s eye chili peppers also showed an increase, reaching 569,650 tons in 2022, up 7.86% from the previous year.
Meanwhile, according to data from the Central Statistics Agency (BPS), national chili pepper production in 2020 reached 2.77 million tons, an increase of 7.11% compared to 2019. West Java Province was the largest producer, contributing 18.72% of the total national production.
It is also recorded that the increase in chili pepper prices often becomes a major contributor to inflation in Indonesia. In November 2023, BPS reported monthly inflation of 0.38%, with red chili peppers and bird’s eye chili peppers contributing 0.16% and 0.08% to inflation, respectively. Factors such as extreme weather, distribution disruptions, and increased demand can cause fluctuations in chili pepper prices, which in turn affect the rate of inflation. If we eliminate production process disruptions and supply quantity reductions, then the increase in demand can be an interesting point of observation. Indeed, in a cultural context, there are certain moments that increase the demand for chili peppers, such as during Eid al-Fitr, when chili pepper consumption increases along with the overall increase in food consumption due to the abundance of feasts and celebrations, the main agenda of which is enjoying various dishes.
But there is still an opportunity to delve deeper into the phenomenon of spicy chili pepper consumption, in connection with its role as a natural social therapy that serves as one of the coping methods for managing stress arising from psychosocial conditions. Perhaps this stress can be assumed to originate from economic, political, or lifestyle change issues, among others.
By studying the dynamics of chili pepper commodity demand, we can analyze the dynamics of psychosocial stress in society and various variables from its triggering factors, right?
Enjoy your lunch with _fried chili peppers, roasted stink beans, and a bowl of warm rice!
Further Reading
1. Caterina, M. J., & Julius, D. (2001). The vanilloid receptor: A molecular gateway to the pain pathway. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 24, 487–517.
2. Chuang, H. H., Prescott, E. D., Kong, H., Shields, S., Jordt, S. E., Basbaum, A. I., & Julius, D. (2001). Bradykinin and nerve growth factor release the capsaicin receptor from PtdIns(4,5)P2-mediated inhibition. Nature, 411(6840), 957–962.
3. Dhaka, A., Viswanath, V., & Patapoutian, A. (2006). TRP ion channels and temperature sensation. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 29, 135–161.
4. Docherty, R. J., Yeats, J. C., Bevan, S., & Boddeke, H. W. (1997). Inhibition of calcitonin gene-related peptide release from rat sensory neurones by activation of vanilloid receptors. British Journal of Pharmacology, 121(8), 1461–1466.
5. Holzer, P. (1991). Capsaicin: Cellular targets, mechanisms of action, and selectivity for thin sensory neurons. Pharmacological Reviews, 43(2), 143–201.
6. Hwang, S. W., Cho, H., Kwak, J., Lee, S. Y., Kang, C. J., Jung, J., & Oh, U. (2000). Direct activation of capsaicin receptors by products of lipoxygenases: Endogenous capsaicin-like substances. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 97(11), 6155–6160.
7. Iannotti, F. A., Hill, C. L., Leo, A., Alhusaini, A., Soubrane, C., Mazzarella, E., & Di Marzo, V. (2014). Nonpsychotropic plant cannabinoids, capsaicin, and their derivatives as potential analgesics and anti-inflammatory agents. Molecules, 19(24), 18797–18832.
8. Jancsó, G., Király, E., & Jancsó-Gábor, A. (1977). Pharmacologically induced selective degeneration of chemosensitive primary sensory neurones. Nature, 270(5639), 741–743.
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15. Szallasi, A., & Sheta, M. (2008). Sensory nerves and the capsaicin receptor: A historical perspective. In TRP Ion Channel Function in Sensory Transduction and Cellular Signaling Cascades.
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